ABSTRACT
Background: The literature has been showing evidence about the impact of restrictive measures during the COVID-19 pandemic on different psychological variables and behaviours. This study aims to assess the contribution of anxiety about appearance on the practice of physical exercise and use of image-and performance-enhancing drugs (IPEDs) during the COVID-19 lockdown. Method: An online survey was carried out comprising the Exercise Addiction Inventory, and the Appearance Anxiety Inventory in addition to questions on the use of IPEDs. Results: The sample consisted of 3.161 (65% female) adults from seven countries (Italy, Spain, the United Kingdom [UK], Lithuania, Portugal, Japan and Hungary). Mean age was 35.05 years (SD = 12.10). Overall, 4.3% of the participants were found to engage in excessive or problematic exercise during the COVID-19 lockdown with peaks registered in the UK and Spain. Participants across all countries also reported the use of drugs and medicines to boost image and performance, and this use was maintained or started during the lockdown. Significant appearance anxiety levels were found across the sample. Logistic regression models revealed that anxiety about appearance was a non-significant predictor of engaging in physical exercise but increased the probability of using IPEDs significantly. This was despite the strong association found between physical exercise and IPEDs use. Conclusions: This study identified risks of appearance anxiety associated with the unsupervised use of IPEDs among the general population during the COVID-19 lockdown period across all the participating countries. The risks of appearance anxiety associated with excessive physical exercising were non-significant.
ABSTRACT
Background: Experts in the field raised concerns about the rise of the Problematic Usage of the Internet (PUI) during the Coronavirus pandemic (COVID-19), however, specific online behaviours and how they are presented cross-culturally were explored to a lesser extent. In this study, we aimed to explore the cross-cultural manifestation of specific online behaviours and their associations with self-compassion, appearance anxiety, image and performance enhancing drugs (IPEDs) use, and specific online behaviours. Methods: An international survey was conducted in eight countries including Italy, Lithuania, Portugal, Spain, Japan, United Kingdom, Brazil and Hungary comprising in total 2223 individuals with a mean age of 33±11 years old. Participants were surveyed for specific type of Internet use severity (the Internet Activities Scale from the Internet Severity and Activities Addiction Questionnaire), selfcompassion (the Self-Compassion Scale, SCS), appearance anxiety (the Appearance Anxiety Inventory, AAI), and IPEDs use. Results: After adjustment for demographic factors, hours online, and country, self-compassion remained associated with higher levels of skill games and time wasters (β=-.073;p<.002), streaming (β=-.053;p=.018), digital hoarding (β=-.065;p=.006) and cyberchondria (β=-.153;p<.001). Appearance was associated with general surfing (β=.136;p<.001), online shopping (β=.137;p<.001), online gambling (β=.067;p=.003), social networking (β=.131;p<.001), pornography use (β=.102;p<.001), digital hoarding (β=.079;p<.001) and cyberchondria (β=.120;p<.001). IPEDs use also remained associated with various online behaviours during the COVID-19 pandemic Conclusions: Our exploratory study demonstrates that self-compassion, appearance anxiety, and IPEDS use contribute to various forms of PUI.